Syllabus:
GS 1: Distribution of Key Natural Resources across the world
Context:
Recently, amidst the ongoing trade tensions, China has suspended the export of rare earth elements (REEs).
About Rare Earth Elements (REEs)
According to the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry, REEs comprise a group of 17 chemically similar elements, including the 15 lanthanides along with scandium and yttrium. These elements are characterized by properties such as high density and excellent electrical conductivity.
REEs are primarily sourced from minerals like bastnasite, monazite, and loparite. They are classified into light (Cerium group) and heavy (Yttrium group) based on atomic number.
Although rare earth elements (REEs) are relatively abundant in the Earth’s crust, they are rarely found in economically exploitable concentrations.
- Their extraction and refining present major challenges, geologically dispersed deposits, complex mineralogy, and energy-intensive separation processes.
- This makes production both costly and technologically demanding, contributing to their ‘rare’ designation despite their natural occurrence.
Seventeen REEs: 15 lanthanides plus scandium (Sc) and Yttrium (Y)
| 1. | Lanthanum (La) | 7. | Europium (Eu) | 13. | Thulium (Tm) |
| 2. | Cerium (Ce) | 8. | Gadolinium (Gd) | 14. | Ytterbium (Yb) |
| 3. | Praseodymium (Pr) | 9. | Terbium (Tb) | 15. | Lutetium (Lu) |
| 4. | Neodymium (Nd) | 10. | Dysprosium (Dy) | 16. | Scandium (Sc) |
| 5. | Promethium (Pm) | 11. | Holmium (Ho) | 17. | Yttrium (Y) |
| 6. | Samarium (Sm) | 12. | Erbium (Er) |
Geographical Hotspots of REEs
According to the United States Geological Survey (2025), REEs are unevenly distributed globally along with China holding the largest reserves at 44 million metric tons and leading production with over one-third of global output.
- The Bayan Obo deposit in Inner Mongolia has sustained China’s dominance since the 1990s.
Brazil follows China in 2nd with reserves of 21 million metric tons.
India has 5th largest reserve of REE.
The U.S., with 1.9 million metric tons of REE reserves, mainly in California, led global production in the 1970s and early 1980s but lost dominance in the 1990s due to environmental and political concerns.
Between 1985 and 1995, China rapidly expanded its REE output, raising its global share from 21% to 60% by leveraging low costs and advanced technology.
China has strategically exploited this monopoly to exert pressure on countries like Japan in 2010 and recently on the US.
UPSC PYQ
Elucidate the relationship between globalization and new technology in a world of scarce resources, with special reference to India. (CSE 2022)
Mains Question:
Q. Critically evaluate the various resources of the oceans which can be harnessed to meet the resource crisis in the world. (2014)